• The purpose of high lift devices is to reduce takeoff and landing speeds by reducing stall speed

FIXED SLOTS

• Fixed slots are gaps located at the leading edge of a wing that allow air to flow from below the wing to the upper surface
• High pressure air from the leading edge stagnation point is directed through the slot, which acts as a nozzle converting the static pressure into dynamic pressure
• The high kinetic energy air leaving the nozzle increases the energy of the boundary layer and delays separation
• Small increase in drag is created

• Automatic slots are created by slats which are moveable leading edge sections
• As a slat opens it creates a slot, and it can open mechanically, hydraulically, electrically, or by the chordwise circulation of airflow around the wing

• As a slat opens it creates a slot, and it can open mechanically, hydraulically, electrically, or by the chordwise circulation of airflow around the wing
• Aerodynamic deployment occurs when the dynamic pressure generated in flight decreases to the point that it is overcome by the chordwise circulation
• Mechanical occurs when the pilot or onboard computer lowers the flaps

• PLAIN FLAP
• A plain flap is a simple hinged portion of the trailing edge that is forced down into the airstream to increase the camber of the airfoil
• SPLIT FLAP
• A split flap is a plate deflected from the lower surface of the airfoil
• Creates a lot of turbulence because of the turbulent air between the wing and deflected surface
• SLOTTED FLAP
• A slotted flap is similar to the plain flap, but moves away from the wing to open a narrow slot between the flap and wing for boundary layer control
• Causes a slight, but insignificant increase in wing area
• FOWLER FLAP
• A fowler flap is used extensively on larger airplanes
• Moves down increasing the camber
• Causes an increase in wing area

• PLAIN FLAP
• Similar to trailing edge plain flaps
• SLOTTED FLAP
• Similar to trailing edge slotted flaps

• A plain flap is a simple hinged portion of the trailing edge that is forced down into the airstream to increase the camber of the airfoil
• Causes a slight, but insignificant increase in wing area
• Moves down increasing the camber
• Causes an increase in wing area

• Since the area of highest lift coefficient will stall first, the rectangular wing has a strong root stall tendency
• Limited to low speed, lightweight airplanes
• Provides adequate stall warning and aileron effectiveness

• The elliptical has an even distribution of lift from the root to the tip and produces minimum induced drag
• An even lift distribution means that all sections stall at the same angle of attack
• Little advanced warning and aileron effectiveness may be lost near stall

• Moderate taper wings have a lift distribution and stall pattern similar to the elliptical wing
• Pilot will lose lateral control of airplane due to the ailerons being located at the tips of the wings

• A highly tapered wing is desirable from the standpoint of structural weight, stiffness, and wingtip vortices
• Tapered wings produce most of the lift toward the tip, therefore they have a strong tip stall tendency

• Swept wings are used on high speed aircraft because they reduce drag and allow the airplane to fly at higher mach numbers
• Have a strong tip stall tendency and stall easily
• When the wingtip stalls it rapidly progresses over the entire wing

• The advantages to using swept wings are reduced weight, improved stiffness, and reduced wingtip vortices
• Pilot will lose lateral control of airplane due to the ailerons being located at the tips of the wings

• Wing tailoring is used to create a root to tip progression and give the pilot some stall warning while ensuring that the ailerons remain effective up to a complete stall

• Geometric twist is a decrease in angle of incidence from wing root to wingtip
• Results in a decreased angle of attack at the wingtip
• The root stalls first

• Aerodynamic twist is a decrease in camber from wing root to wingtip
• Wing root stalls before the tip due to positive camber airfoils stalling at lower angles of attack

• The T-34 wing is geometrically twisted 3.1 degrees
• The T-37 wing is geometrically twisted 2.5 degrees
• The wings of the T-34 and T-37 are aerodynamically twisted to create a reduced camber at the tip

TOTAL DRAG

• Total drag is the component of the aerodynamic force that is parallel to the relative wind, and acts in the same direction

• Parasite drag is defined as all drag that is not associated with the production of lift

• Induced drag is that portion of total drag associated with the production of lift

FORM DRAG

• Form drag, also known as pressure or profile drag, is caused by the airflow separation from a surface and the wake that is created by the separation
• Form drag would be temporarily significant until the aircraft velocity decreased to match the higher angle of attack
• To reduce form drag, the fuselage, bombs, and other exposed surfaces are streamlined

• Friction drag is created in the boundary layer, which is produced to viscosity
• Friction drag can be reduced by smoothing the exposed surfaces of the airplane through painting, cleaning, waxing or polishing

• Interference drag is generated by the mixing of streamlines between one or more components
• Accounts for 5 to 10 percent of drag on an airplane
• Reduced by proper fairing and filleting which allows streamlines to meet gradually rather than abruptly

• Form drag, also known as pressure or profile drag, is caused by the airflow separation from a surface and the wake that is created by the separation
• Friction drag is created in the boundary layer, which is produced to viscosity
• Interference drag is generated by the mixing of streamlines between one or more components

• To reduce form drag, the fuselage, bombs, and other exposed surfaces are streamlined
• Friction drag can be reduced by smoothing the exposed surfaces of the airplane through painting, cleaning, waxing or polishing
• Interference can be reduced by proper fairing and filleting which allows streamlines to meet gradually rather than abruptly

UPWASH

• Upwash is air that should have passed under the wing but flowed up and over the wing
• Upwash increases lift because it increases the average angle of attack on the wing

• Downwash is air on top of the wing that flows down and under the trailing edge
• Downwash decreases lift by reducing the average angle of attack on the wing
• For an infinite wing, the upwash exactly balances the downwash resulting in no net change in lift
• Downwash and upwash exists any time an airfoil produces lift

• The wind flows around the wingtips, combines with the chordwise flow that has already produced lift and adds to the downwash
• Downwash approximately doubles by this process due to the spanwise airflow moving around the formation of wingtip vortices

• Induced drag is caused by the parallel component of total lift
• Induced drag varies inversely with velocity and directly with the angle of the attack

• Winglets, wingtip tanks, and missile rails have all been added to the aircraft design to reduce induced drag

• Total drag increases with increasing velocity from the point where induced drag and parasite drag intersect

• The lift to drag ratio is used to determine the efficiency of an airfoil
• A high lift to drag ration indicates a more efficient airfoil

• Thrust required is the amount of thrust required to overcome drag
• Power required is the amount of power that is necessary to produce the thrust required

• Thrust available is the amount of thrust that the airplane’s engines are actually producing at a given throttle, setting, velocity, and density

• Power available is the amount of power that the airplane’s engine(s) is(are) actually producing, at a given throttle, velocity, and density

• The most important factor is throttle
• As velocity increases, power available increases linearly
• Thrust available decreases with a decrease in density
• Power available also decreases with a decrease in density

• Maximum engine output occurs at full throttle (PCL setting, power control level)
• As velocity increases, power available for a prop will initially increase, but then decrease due to a decrease in thrust available
• Power available is determined by the performance of the engine/propeller combination
• As density increases the blade angle changes to take a bigger "bite" out of the air

THRUST HORSEPOWER (THP)

• Thrust horsepower is propeller output, or the horsepower that is converted to thrust by the propeller

• Shaft horsepower is engine output

• Propeller efficiency is the ability of the propeller to turn engine output into thrust

• Thrust horsepower is equal to the shaft horsepower times the propeller efficiency
• Equation is given as THP = SHP x p.e.

• At seal level, the PT6A-25 engine in the T-34C is flat rated at 550 SHP (1315 ft-lbs. of torque), but is Navy limited to 425 SHP (1015 ft-lbs. torque) in order to extend the service life of the engine

• At seal level, the PT6A-25 engine in the T-34C is flat rated at 550 SHP (1315 ft-lbs. of torque), but is Navy limited to 425 SHP (1015 ft-lbs. torque) in order to extend the service life of the engine

• At seal level, each J69-T-25A engine in the T-37B is flat rated at 1025 lbs. of thrust at 100% RPM but is limited to 95% RPM for continuous operation

• At seal level, each J69-T-25A engine in the T-37B is flat rated at 1025 lbs. of thrust at 100% RPM but is limited to 95% RPM for continuous operation

• Thrust excess occurs if thrust available is greater than thrust required at a particular velocity

THRUST EXCESS

• A positive thrust excess causes an acceleration, a climb, or both, depending on angle of attack
• A negative thrust excess is called a thrust deficit and has the opposite effect

• A power excess causes an acceleration, a climb, or both
• A power deficit will cause a decent, a deceleration, or both

MAXIMUM THRUST EXCESS

• With an increase in altitude, the thrust required shifts right only
• With an increase in altitude, the power required shifts up and to the right
• Thrust available decreases with altitude
• Power available decreases with altitude

• Thrust excess and power excess decrease with an increase in altitude
• Increased airspeed is necessary to achieve maximum thrust and power excess

• Thrust and power required both shift up only with deployment of landing gear
• Thrust and power available are not affected by the deployment of landing gear
• Thrust and power required both shift up and left with deployment of flaps
• Thrust and power available are not affected by the deployment of flaps

• Maximum thrust excess and maximum power excess decrease with the deployment of the landing gear
• The velocity remains constant to achieve maximum thrust and power for deployment of the landing gear
• Maximum thrust excess and maximum power excess decrease with deployment of flaps
• Velocity required to achieve maximum power and thrust excess decreases

• The fuel consumed is proportional to the airplane’s thrust available
• Minimum fuel flow for a turbojet is found on the thrust required curve
• In order to maintain equilibrium flight, thrust available must equal thrust required

• The thrust provided by a propeller is not produced directly by the engine, so there is no direct relationship between fuel flow and thrust
• Fuel flow varies directly with the power output of the engine
• Minimum fuel flow will be found on the power required curve

• Maximum endurance is the maximum amount of time that an airplane can remain airborne on a given amount of fuel

• Maximum range is the maximum distance traveled over the ground for a given amount of fuel

TURBOJET

WEIGHT

• Maximum range and endurance are both decreased with an increase in weight

• Maximum range and endurance are both increased with an increase in altitude

• Maximum range and endurance are both decreased with the deployment of flaps or landing gear

• Winds will have no effect on maximum endurance
• Headwinds will decrease maximum range
• Tailwinds will increase maximum range

MAXIMUM ANGLE OF CLIMB

• Maximum angle of climb desires maximum vertical velocity (altitude increase) for a minimum horizontal velocity (ground speed)
• Used to take off from a short airfield

• Maximum rate of climb is a comparison of altitude gained relative to the time needed to reach the altitude
• Used to gain the greatest vertical distance in the shortest amount of time

TURBOJET

TURBOJET

WEIGHT

• Maximum angle and rate of climb are both decreased with an increase in weight

• Maximum angle and rate of climb are both decreased with an increase in altitude

• Maximum angle and rate of climb are both decreased with the deployment of flaps or landing gear

• Winds will have no effect on rate of climb performance
• Headwinds will increase the airplane’s maximum angle of climb

• Absolute ceiling is the altitude at which the airplane has a maximum rate of climb of zero, it can no longer perform a steady climb
• Maximum power excess is zero at this altitude

• Service ceiling is the altitude that an airplane can maintain a maximum rate of climb of only 100 f.p.m.

• Cruise ceiling is the altitude that an airplane can maintain a maximum climb rate of only 300 f.p.m.

• Combat ceiling is the altitude that an airplane can maintain a maximum climb rate of 500 f.p.m.

• Maximum operating ceiling is the maximum altitude at which an aircraft can be operated

• The maximum operating ceiling of the T-34 and the T-37 is 25,000 feet

• Maximum glide range is the maximum distance the airplane can glide to reach a safe landing area after the engine has stalled

• Maximum glide endurance is the amount of time an airplane can glide and is used if the engine stalls in easy reach of a safe landing area

WEIGHT

• Increasing weight will cause the airplane to fly faster and glide faster, but still glide the same distance

• Increasing altitude will increase the glide endurance and range

• Changing configuration will decrease the glide rate and endurance

• Headwinds will cause a decrease in glide range
• Tailwinds will cause an increase in glide range
• Winds have no effect on range or endurance

• Propeller feathering will increase glide range and endurance and increase airspeed

• The region of normal command is located at velocities above maximum endurance
• Characterized by airspeed stability

• The region of reverse command is located at velocities below maximum endurance
• Characterized by airspeed instability

• Trim tabs are the control system used on the T-34 and T-37

• The elevator is attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer, and controls the pitching moment around the airplane’s center of gravity (CG)

• The ailerons move in unison opposite from one another
• If the stick is pushed left the left aileron rises and the right aileron lowers

• Spoilers may be attached to the wing’s upper surface to provide roll control on some aircraft
• Disrupt the airflow over the wing in order to decrease the lift on the wing

• The rudder is attached to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer and produces a yawing action

• Trimming reduces the force required to hold control surfaces in a position necessary to maintain a desired flight attitude
• Trim tabs must be moved in the opposite direction as the control surface

• Aileron trim in the T-34 is adjusted after takeoff and seldom requires further adjustment during flight
• Right rudder trim is required for power increases and slower airspeeds
• Left rudder trim is required for power reductions and faster airspeeds
• Elevator trim is adjusted up at slower speeds and down at higher speeds

• All surface’s center of gravity and aerodynamic center must be balanced around the hingeline in order to regulate control pressure, prevent control flutter, and provide control-free stability

• Mass balancing is a technique used to locate the CG on the hingeline in which weights are placed inside the control surface in the area forward of the hingeline (shielded horn and overhang)

• Aerodynamic balancing uses shield horns on the elevator and rudder, and an overhang on the ailerons

• For aerodynamic balance, the T-34 uses shielded horns on the elevator and rudder, and an overhang on the ailerons
• For mass balance, the T-34 uses weights placed on the inside of the control surface in the area forward of the hingeline

• Servo trim tabs move in the opposite direction as the aileron, thus helping the pilot to deflect the aileron, and making the airplane easier to maneuver
• Anti-servo trim tabs move in the same direction at a faster rate, thus the more that the rudder is pressed, the greater the resistance that the pilot will feel
• Neutral trim tabs use a constant angle to the elevator when the control surface is deflected

BOBWEIGHTS

• Bobweights increase the force required to pull the stick aft during maneuvering flight

• Downsprings increase the force required to pull the stick aft at low airspeeds

• The T-34 uses trim tabs, downsprings, and bobweights to provide artificial feel to the aircraft

• Static stability is the initial tendency of an object to move toward or away from its original equilibrium position

• Dynamic stability is the position with respect to time, or motion of an object after a disturbance

POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY

• Positive static stability is when an object has an initial tendency towards its original equilibrium position

• Negative static stability is when an object has an initial tendency away from equilibrium following a disturbance

• Neutral static stability is when the initial tendency is to accept the displacement position as the new equilibrium position

• Stability and maneuverability are opposites

• One way to increase maneuverability is to give the airplane weak stability
• This makes the airplane more difficult to fly in equilibrium and will require more of the pilots attention
• The second way to increase maneuverability is to give the airplane larger control surfaces
• The larger surfaces create larger moments resulting in greater aerodynamic forces

• Longitudinal stability is the stability of the longitudinal axis around the lateral axis

• The neutral point is the location of the CG of an airplane, along the longitudinal axis, that would produce neutral longitudinal static stability
• The average aerodynamic center for the overall airplane

STRAIGHT WINGS

• Straight wings are negative contributors to longitudinal static stability

• Sweeping the wings back is a positive contributor to longitudinal static stability

• The fuselage is a negative contributor to longitudinal static stability

• The horizontal stabilizer will have the greatest positive effect on longitudinal static stability

• If the neutral point location is behind the airplane’s center of gravity the component will be a positive contributor to longitudinal static stability
• If the neutral point location is in front of the airplane’s center of gravity the component will be a negative contributor to longitudinal static stability

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

• Directional stability is the stability of the longitudinal axis around the vertical axis

• Sideslip angle is the angle between the longitudinal axis and the relative wind

• Sideslip relative wind is the component of the relative wind that is parallel to the lateral axis

STRAIGHT WINGS

• Straight wings have a small positive effect on directional static stability

• Swept wings will have a positive effect on directional static stability

FUSELAGE

• The fuselage is a negative contributor to the airplane’s directional static stability

VERTICAL STABILIZER

• The vertical stabilizer is the greatest positive contributor to the directional static stability of a conventionally designed airplane

• Lateral stability is the stability of the lateral axis around the longitudinal axis

DIHEDRAL WINGS

• Dihedral wings are the greatest positive contributors to lateral static stability

ANHEDRAL WINGS

• Anhedral wings are the greatest negative contributors to lateral static stability

WING PLACEMENT ON THE VERTICAL AXIS

• A high mounted wing is a positive contributor to lateral static stability
• A low mounted wing is a negative contributor to lateral static stability

SWEPT WINGS

• Swept wings are laterally stabilizing

• When in a lateral sideslip, the vertical stabilizer senses an angle of attack, so it produces lift
• Since the tail is above the airplane’s CG, this lift produces a moment that tends to right the airplane

ELO 1.136 Describe directional divergence, spiral divergence, dutch roll, and phugoid motion.

• Directional divergence is a condition of flight in which the reaction to a small initial sideslip results in an increase in sideslip angle
• Directional divergence is caused by negative directional static stability

SPIRAL DIVERGENCE

• Spiral divergence occurs when an airplane has strong directional stability and weak lateral stability

DUTCH ROLL

• Dutch roll is the result of strong lateral stability and weak directional stability

PHUGOID MOTION

• Oscillations of altitude and airspeed that occur over relatively long periods of time, and are easily controlled by the pilot
• Also called phugoid motion

• Directional divergence occurs at negative directional static stability

• Spiral divergence occurs at strong directional stability and weak lateral stability

• Dutch roll occurs at strong lateral stability and weak directional stability

• Phugoid motion occurs when an upward gust of air strikes the airplane causing a gain in altitude but a loss in airspeed

• Proverse roll is the tendency of an airplane to roll in the same direction as it is yawing

• Adverse yaw is the tendency of an airplane to yaw away from the direction of aileron roll input

• Pilot induced oscillations are short period oscillations of pitch altitude and angle of attack

• The T-34C and T-37B are not subject to pilot induced oscillations since it does not have strong longitudinal static stability

• Asymmetric thrust can occur in the T-37B as the engines are relatively close together and is corrected by full opposite rudder for the yawing and opposite aileron for the proverse roll
• Slipstream swirl occurs from corkscrewing of air and is corrected in the T-34C by increasing right rudder and lateral control stick inputs
• P-factor is caused by one propeller creating more thrust than the other, happens in the T-37B
• Torque occurs in the T-34C and is corrected by elevator trim tabs
• Gyroscopic precession occurs in the T-34C by pitching the nose upwards to produce an applied force acting forward on the bottom of the propeller disk and causes the T-34 to yaw right
• Gyroscopic precession occurs in the T-37B from its engine compressors and turbines, so pitching the nose up will tend to yaw the T-37B to the left

• Asymmetric thrust can occur in the T-37B as the engines are relatively close together and is corrected by full opposite rudder for the yawing and opposite aileron for the proverse roll
• Slipstream swirl occurs from corkscrewing of air and is corrected in the T-34C by increasing right rudder and lateral control stick inputs
• P-factor is caused by one propeller creating more thrust than the other, happens in the T-37B
• Torque occurs in the T-34C and is corrected by elevator trim tabs
• Gyroscopic precession occurs in the T-34C by pitching the nose upwards to produce an applied force acting forward on the bottom of the propeller disk and causes the T-34 to yaw right
• Gyroscopic precession occurs in the T-37B from its engine compressors and turbines, so pitching the nose up will tend to yaw the T-37B to the left

• A spin is an aggravated stall that results in autorotation

• Autorotation is a combination of roll and yaw that propagates itself and progressively gets worse due to asymmetrically stalled wings

• A spin is only caused by a stalling airplane with some form of yaw introduced

• Weight located far from the CG causes a greater moment of inertia and makes the spin difficult to overcome
• Increased weight causes a more difficult time for the pilot to recover from the spin

• Pitch attitude will have a direct impact on the speed the aircraft stalls
• The higher the pitch attitude, the greater the vertical component of thrust, and the lower the stall speed
• Spins are entered slower and with less oscillations at high attitude
• Spins are entered faster and with more oscillations at low attitude

• The nose will tend to drift the direction of the rotation of the propeller due to gyroscopic precession

• Autorotation is a combination of roll and yaw that propagates itself and progressively gets worse due to asymmetrically stalled wings
• The up-going wing has a lower AOA
• The down-going wing has a higher AOA
• The up-going wing has a greater CL due to its smaller AOA resulting in increased lift
• The down-going wing has a greater CD due to its increased AOA

• Erect spins result from positive-g stall entries
• The altimeter will be rapidly decreasing, the turn needle will be pegged in the direction of the spin, the gyro may be tumbling
• The balance ball (slip indicator) gives no useful indication of spin direction and should be disregarded

• Inverted spins result from either negative-g stalls or an improperly applied recovery from an erect spin that results in a negative-g stall
• The altimeter will be rapidly decreasing, the turn needle will be pegged in the direction of the spin, gyro may be tumbling

• The rudder is the principal control for stopping autorotation
• The horizontal component creates a force that opposes yawing and the vertical component creates a force that pulls the tail up and pitches the nose down
• Opposite rudder maximizes both of these components

• The empennage has two ventral fins located below it that decrease the spin rate and aid in maintaining a nose-down attitude
• The placement of the horizontal control surfaces will significantly affect spin recovery

• To initiate the spin prevention, use stick forces as necessary to break the stall, apply rudder as necessary to eliminate the yaw, and check the throttles at idle
• Move the controls positively until the recovery is made
• Both the stick and rudder should be positively moved against the spin with continuous control movement until the rotation stops
• Do not hesitate to use the necessary controls, it may take full control deflection

• Progressive spin is when you reverse the spin direction
• Characterized by a violent entry which can be disorienting

• Aggravated spin results from pushing the stick forward while maintaining rudder in the direction of the spin
• Characterized by an increased spin rate and a steep nose-down pitch

• Load factor is the ratio of the total lift to the airplane’s weight
• Often referred to as g’s as it is the number of times the earth’s gravitational pull that the pilot feels

• Load factor is equal to the lift divided by the weight of the airplane
• Equation is given as n = L/W

• Stall speed increases when we induce a load factor greater than one on the airplane

• A load is a stress-producing force that is imposed upon an airplane or component

• Strength is a measure of a material’s resistance to load

• Static strength is a measure of a material’s resistance to a single application of a steadily increasing load or force

• Static failure is the breaking of a material due to a single application of a steadily increasing load or force

FATIGUE STRENGTH

• Fatigue strength is a measure of a material’s ability to withstand a cyclic application of load or force

• Fatigue failure is the breaking of a material due to cyclic application of load or force

SERVICE LIFE

• Service life is the number of applications of load or force that a component can withstand before it has the probability of failing

• Creep is when a metal is subjected to high stress and temperature it tends to stretch or elongate

• Limit load factor is the greatest load factor an airplane can sustain without any risk of permanent deformation

• The elastic limit is the maximum load that may be applied to a component without permanent deformation

OVERSTRESS/OVER-G

• Overstress/over-g is the condition of possible permanent deformation or damage that results from exceeding the limit load factor

ULTIMATE LOAD FACTOR

• Ultimate load factor is the maximum load factor that the airplane can withstand without structural failure

• The limit load factor is designed to be less than the elastic limit of individual components

• The V-n/V-g diagram is a graph that summarizes an airplane’s structural and aerodynamic limitation
• Horizontal axis is the indicated airspeed
• Vertical axis is the load factor, or g’s
• Accelerated stall lines represent the maximum load factor that an airplane can produce based on airspeed
• The maneuver point is the point where the accelerated stall line and the limit load factor line intersect
• Redline airspeed is the maximum airspeed your airplane is allowed to fly

• The redline airspeed for the T-34 is 280 KIAS and for the T-37 is 382 KIAS
• The maneuver speed for the T-34 is 135 KIAS and for the T-37 is 235 KIAS
• The limit load factors for the T-34 are excessive horizontal stabilizer loads at speeds in excess of 280 KIAS

WEIGHT

• With decreasing weight, the limit load factor increases

• Lowering the landing gear and flaps substantially reduces the safe flight envelope

• Asymmetric loading refers to uneven production of lift on the wings of an airplane
• Caused by a pullout, trapped fuel, or hung ordinance
• The limit load factor due to pilot induced loads should be reduced to approximately two-thirds of the normal limit load factor

• Gust loading refers to the increase in the G load due to vertical wind gusts
• The limit load factor due to pilot induced loads should be reduced to approximately two-thirds of the normal limit load factor

• Flying at maneuver speed will not allow the airplane to be overstressed for positive g’s at that airspeed

• Turn radius is a measure of the radius of the circle the flight path scribes

• Turn rate is the rate of heading change, measured in degrees per second

• As velocity increases for a given angle of bank, turn rate will decrease and turn radius will increase

ANGLE OF BANK

• Increasing angle of bank for a given velocity will increase turn rate and decrease turn radius

WEIGHT

• Turn rate and radius are independent of weight

SLIPPING

• Slipping will cause the turn radius to increase and the turn rate to decrease

SKIDDING

• Skidding will cause the turn radius to decrease and the turn rate to increase

• A standard rate turn is one in which three degrees of turn are completed each second

• For a standard rate turn in a T-34, the angle of bank should be equal to 15-20 percent of airspeed
• For a standard rate turn in a T-37, the angle of bank should be equal to 30 percent of airspeed
• A standard rate turn is equal to two needle widths deflection on the turn needle in the T-34 and T-37

• The minimum takeoff speed is about 20 percent above the power-off stall speed, while the landing speed is about 30 percent higher

• High lift devices are often used to decrease takeoff and landing speeds
• Indicated airspeed for takeoff and landing will not be affected by changes in air density

• Indicated airspeed for takeoff and landing will not be affected by changes in air density
• High lift devices decrease airspeed
• Increased weight will decrease ground speed
• Headwind will decrease ground speed
• Tailwinds will increase ground speed

• Rolling friction occurs on takeoff and accounts for the friction between the landing gear and the runway
• The coefficient of friction is dependent upon runway surface, runway condition, tire type and degree of brake application
• The net accelerating force is equal to thrust minus drag minus rolling friction
• The net decelerating force is equal to drag plus rolling friction minus thrust

• Weight is the greatest factor affecting takeoff distance
• Using high lift devices decreases the takeoff distance
• Three density factors, high, hot, humid make for poor takeoff and landing conditions

• Weight increases takeoff and landing distance
• Temperature, altitude, and humidity all increase proportionally with takeoff and landing distance
• High lift devices decrease takeoff distance
• Headwinds decrease takeoff distance
• Tailwinds increase takeoff distance
• Greater wing area decreases landing and takeoff distance

• Crosswinds affect directional control of an airplane
• Ailerons are used to overcome lateral stability that is trying to roll the airplane away from the sideslip relative wind

• The nosewheel will only be lifted above the minimum nosewheel liftoff/touchdown speed to prevent the airplane from weathercocking or weathervaning into the wind and possibly running off the runway

• Ground effect significantly reduces induced drag and increases effective lift when the airplane is within one wingspan of the ground

• Ground effect reduces induced drag and increases effective lift

• The aircraft is in ground effect within one wingspan of the ground, 33 feet for the T-34 or T-37

• Beta setting should be used as much as possible to stop the aircraft that is hydroplaning

• Wingtip vortices are spiraling masses of air that are formed at the wingtip when an airplane produces lift

• The most significant factor affecting your ability to counteract the roll induced by vortices is the relative wingspan between the two airplanes
• Vortices are generated from the time an airplane rotates for takeoff until the airplane nosewheel touches down for landing

• The greatest vortex strength occurs when the generating airplane is heavy, slow, and clean

• Hazards associated with encountering another aircraft’s wake turbulence are possible over g or a flameout

• The most important pilot technique for survival during wake turbulence is to avoid it
• Remain two minutes behind the aircraft in front of you
• Fly slightly above the aircraft in front of yours flight path
• Land slightly beyond the touchdown point of the aircraft in front of you

• Wind shear is the sudden change in wind direction and/or speed over a short distance in the atmosphere
• Most often caused by jet streams, land or sea breezes, fronts, inversions and thunderstorms

• Wind shear is most often caused by jet streams, land or sea breezes, fronts, inversions and thunderstorms

• Airspeed can increase or drop rapidly through wind shear
• The possibility of a stall becomes very real with an increased angle of attack
• Transition from tailwinds to no winds cause an increase in performance
• Transition from headwinds to no winds cause a decrease in performance
• Pilot may have insufficient time to correct the situation and could fall short of the runway