a.  Lost aircraft procedures

        If you get lost, admit it and try to communicate using all available channels and NAVAIDS.  Be prepared to give a long count (i.e., 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1) or short count (i.e., 1-2-3-4-5-4-3-2-1) in the event of a lost plane search.  Land as a suitable airfield before you run out of gas.  The best policy is to remain oriented and don’t get lost.  If you actually get lost, it will be necessary for you to use your own initiative and good judgment.  Since every situation will be different, it is impossible to establish criterion which will apply to every set of circumstances.  However, the following 5 C’s will generally apply to every case:

        1)  CONFESS.  Admit that you are lost and need some form of assistance.

        2)  CLIMB.  Ceiling and visibility permitting, climb to improve radio reception and forward visibility.

        If approach control replies, they will ask you to squawk a certain code on your transponder.  They may also ask you to provide other information in order to give you a vector (heading) to homefield.  If it appears that clouds will be on your vectored flight path, advise Approach and circle VFR if necessary.

        3)  COMMUNICATE.  Request assistance on the area working frequency from an instructor pilot or advice from your FDO/ODO.  If unable, try calling Approach Control frequency with a PAN report and request vectors to homefield.  If unable to receive any reply, switch radio and try again on GUARD frequency.

        4)  CONSERVE.  Operate the aircraft (when straight and level) at maximum endurance power setting (420 ft-lbs).

        5)  COMPLY - With instructions received from another dual aircraft, Approach, or your base.  Many prominent landmarks are available in and around your working areas to give clues as to your general whereabouts.

        If you find yourself lost, the important thing to remember is to not fly around aimlessly.  Be calm and develop a plan using your good judgment and established procedures.  If you still cannot identify your position after having gone through the 5 C’s, look for any established landing field.  Before landing at a strange field, circle it at a safe altitude to locate all obstacles and hazards.  Determine the wind direction and duty runway and try to get a rough estimation of runway length and width.  If there is a tower at the field, try to contact Approach or tower on GUARD prior to landing.  Once you are ready to land make a normal traffic pattern.  Remember that the field elevation may be considerably different from that of your homefield.  Use the best estimation and adjust accordingly.  Once on deck, notify your base of the situation.

        During foul weather, maintain a visual reference to the ground.  DO NOT FLY ABOVE AN OVERCAST.  If you happen to blunder above a cloud layer, try to find a hole in the clouds and let down VFR.  If letdown is impossible and no other instructions have been received (5 C’s) BAILOUT is imminent.  Do not wait until fuel exhaustion, but do not be in a hurry to “throw in the towel” either.  Be calm and exercise good headwork.
 

    b.  Night emergency procedures

        The same emergency procedures apply for both day and night operations (includes ELP, gear emergencies, lost comm, etc.).  This section here will simply supply some additional considerations to existing emergency procedures.

        1)  Engine Failures

            The only engine failure procedures you’ll have to execute during night operations are those that are real.  No simulated HAPL’s or LAPL’s are authorized per FWOP.  However, remember, the planes are getting old.

            a) Engine failure at or above 2000’ AGL.  If an engine failure occurs at altitude, attempt an engine restart if applicable.  If the restart is not attempted or unsuccessful, and a lighted runway is not immediately available, BAILOUT is highly recommended.

            b) Engine failure below 2000’ AGL.  If the engine fails below 2000’ AGL (coincidentally the minimum recommended night bailout altitude), BAILOUT is not recommended.  If a lighted runway is not immediately available, expeditious headwork will dictate what action would be taken.  If the engine failure occurs close to 2000’ AGL, a decision to BAILOUT should be made quickly to allow sufficient time for egress.  In any case DO NOT SECURE THE BATTERY.  Trade airspeed for altitude if able.

        2)  Visual Aircraft-to-Aircraft Signals

            In the event of lost communications, it is necessary to have standard visual aircraft-to-aircraft signals similar to the following:

            a) “FOLLOW ME” - If another aircraft joins on you, turns its external lights off and on several times, and then continues ahead of you, this means “follow me.”

            b) “CONTINUE ON COURSE” - While following another aircraft as described above, it turns its external lights off and on several times and breaks away sharply to the RIGHT, this means “continue on course.”

            c) “ORBIT THIS POSITION” - If the aircraft you are following turns its external lights off and on several times and breaks sharply to the LEFT, this means “orbit this position.”  Establish an orbit and remain there until the aircraft again joins up and signals to follow.

            d) “I MUST LAND IMMEDIATELY” - If it becomes necessary to make an immediate landing and you have no radios, signal to the aircraft that joins up with you by using your flashlight pointed directly toward the other aircraft, rotate the light in a circular motion (similar to your signal to the lineman for start).

        3)  Electrical Power Failure

            Electrical power is of great importance at night because of the need for interior and exterior lighting, two-way comms, navigational equipment, flight instruments, landing gear and flaps.  An aircraft with no electrical power is virtually invisible at night.  In this case, it is only the pilot who can maintain his own aircraft separation.  For our purposes, we will discuss only two types of electrical failure:  (1) generator failure, and (2) complete electrical failure.

            a) Generator Failure.  If the generator becomes inoperative, the indications will be a flashing master caution light, a generator annunciator light, an ammeter discharging, a voltmeter reading 24 volts or less, and a slight dimming of cockpit lights when the voltage drops from 28 volts to below 24 volts.  Perform the same NATOPS EP’s as you do during the day.  If you are unable to reset the generator, the primary consideration is to conserve battery power.  I’d plan to handcrank the gear down, make a no-flap landing, and request a full runway length stop.

               (1) If unable to reset the generator while in the landing pattern, call for a full stop, stating difficulty and the next time around the pattern, execute a full stop landing.

               (2) Remember that with the exterior lights off, only the pilot can maintain aircraft separation.  You will be invisible to other aircraft.  Also, with both battery and generator off, your pitot and static instruments (airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI), and wet compass will still function.  Engine instruments that will also function are ITT, N1, and prop RPM.  The attitude gyro, annunciator panel, RMI, turn and bank, torque, fuel flow, fuel quantity, oil pressure, and oil temperature indicators will not operate.

            b) Complete Electrical Failure.  An immediate failure of the entire electrical system is rare.  Most complete electrical failures occur due to a generator failure and the subsequent exhaustion of battery power.
 
               (1) If a complete electrical failure occurs in the landing pattern, recheck gear handle down and make your next approach for a full stop landing.  Be sure to maintain proper interval.  Without exterior lighting, only the pilot can maintain aircraft separation.  Be sure to taxi clear of the duty runway on a lighted taxiway, shutdown the aircraft, and standby with your flashlight to mark your position for emergency crews and taxiing aircraft.  Do not taxi without lights; shutdown your aircraft when clear of the duty runway.

               (2) The torquemeter is inoperative with a complete electrical failure.  At 100 kts with gear down, a VSI indication of 1000-1200 FPM rate of descent will equate to approximately 200 ft-lbs of torque.

    c.  Night flying physiology

        1)  Night Vision.

            a) Image size:  An aircraft seen at a long distance looks like a dark dot, not a small aircraft!  Aircraft detection differs from day and night conditions.  During the day, the further from the fovea (center of vision) the object falls, the larger the image must be to be noticed.  Under night conditions, an object must fall on the peripheral vision to be detected (fovea is not a “blind spot”).  Dim objects disappear when looked at directly, yet “reappear” when looking slightly to the side.

            b) Luminance and contrast:  The terms basically mean the same thing.  An object will only be visible when it is sufficiently brighter or darker than its background (i.e., there is significant contrast!).  Differences in brightness, contrast, color, and shape offer clues to the presence of aircraft.  When an object contrasts with background (i.e., yellow against blue, black against white, etc.), or when an object is long and thin versus round and flat, it is easier to detect.  An aircraft seen “longside” is easier to notice than a head-on aircraft of equal area.

            c) Darkness adaptation:  The human eye requires at least 30 minutes, sometimes longer, in dark conditions to regenerate the rhodopsin (visual purple) necessary for night vision.  Conversely, one eyes have dark adapted, time is needed for them to adjust to bright light.  Exposure to bright sunlight before a night mission will degrade night vision.  In fact, it only takes about 10 seconds for all adaption to be lost in bright light.  Protect the limited vision you do have by wearing sunglasses with 100% UV shielding during daylight hours.  Do not stare at a spot, but scan the vicinity of the sky in which you believe the object to be located.

            d) Motion:  When traveling across a stationary, irregular background, an aircraft need only move a few minutes of arc per second to reveal its presence to an alert observer.  Against a featureless background (i.e., a cloudless blue sky), the aircraft’s perceived motion must be 10 minutes faster to be noticed.  Detection of relative motion is further complicated by the fact that the eyes themselves are constantly moving.

               Often you will be unable to see anything of the aircraft ahead except its tail light or strobe lights.  In such cases, it will be difficult to judge distance, since the only criterion for judgment will be changing intensity at changing distance; therefore, you will have to check its movement in relation to known referenced to ascertain relative movement.  Ordinarily, you can judge distance and relative motion by the distance between two lights on the same aircraft.

            e) Exposure time:  The eye requires roughly 1/3 of a second to focus on an object.  Your airborne searching scan should be slow and methodical.  Learn to scan the visual field by dividing the area up into sectors, about 30 degrees each.  Fix your gaze in that sector for a second or two, investigate for any movement, then move to the next sector.
 
               Total darkness, fog, total overcast, or cloudless skies all present the crewmember with a monotonous field.  Under such conditions, the eyes will naturally try to focus on infinity by actually focusing on a point 1-3 meters away.  This is known as “search mypoia” and will reduce the chances of you spotting an aircraft.

               Focus on objects at the maximum range you expect to see aircraft-allow your eyes to focus on the terrain out in front at about 4-8 NM, then begin your scanning.  Avoid, as much as possible, frequency refocusing in and out of the cockpit.

            f) The Bottom line:  As your eyes become fatigued, effective scanning becomes difficult.  Only well rested eyes can ensure good vision.  Structural parts, windshield/canopy distortion, poor cockpit lighting, and instrument glare can limit a person’s vision.  Make your windshield spotless!!!

               You are more likely to detect an aircraft…
               (1) The LARGER it is.
               (2) If it falls on your CENTRAL vision during DAYLIGHT hours.
                   During EVENING hours, PERIPHERAL vision may pick it up
                   better.
               (3) The more it CONTRASTS with the background.
               (4) The FASTER it moves (up to a certain point)
               (5) The more ADAPTED your eyes are.  It takes about 10 minutes
                   to adjust from dark to bright conditions, and about 30
                   minutes to dark adapt.
               (6) The longer it remains in your field of view.
2.  Introduce:

    a.  Ground procedures

        1)  Night preflight

            The night preflight will include all items checked on day preflights with the following additions:

            Check operation of all interior lights in both cockpits during the cockpit safety check by checking the following switches ON (both cockpits) prior to turning the battery ON:

            a) Instrument lights - RHEOSTATS FULL CLOCKWISE

            b) Console and flood lights - RHEOSTATS FULL CLOCKWISE

            c) Utility light - RHEOSTAT FULL CLOCKWISE.

NOTE - The utility light will be positioned in the forward receptacle just aft of the emergency canopy open handle.

            d) Circuit breaker panel light switch - ON

            With the battery ON, complete a check of all exterior lights by turning ON the following switches:

            a) Landing lights

            b) Navigation lights (BRIGHT and DIM position)

            c) Strobe lights

            d) External landing gear indicator lights (peanut lights)(will automatically activate with battery on).

        Conduct a walk-around of the aircraft to ensure operation of all exterior lights.  Ensure any discrepancies are corrected prior to flight.  A clear lens flashlight shall be used during night preflight inspections.

        2)  Light Signals.

            a) Study NATOPS pages 19-22 and 19-23 for all ground light
               signals.

        3)  The PRESTART checklist will be accomplished in the same manner as daylight operations except that the NAV lights will be in the BRIGHT position and the STROBE lights will be OFF.  Additionally, turn the INST FLOOD lights to FULL BRIGHT before starting (and then gradually off after engine start as your eyes become adjusted to the darness).

        4)  The ENGINE START checklist is begun next.  At night, however, you’ll have to send the engine start signal to the lineman to show that you are ready for start.  Basically, just rotate your flashlight from the vertical position at the lineman in a clockwise motion and wait for the return signal.

        5)  The only change to the PRETAXI checklist that you may not be aware of is the signal to have chocks removed.  Move your flashlight alternately from shoulder to shoulder and hold the brakes while the chocks are removed.

        6)  When taxiing, caution must be exercised to prevent excessive taxi speeds caused by lack of outside references and depth perception.  Landing lights should be used during all night taxi evolutions in areas not adequately illuminated (STROBE lights OFF).  If there is any doubt as to your position on the field or any confusion caused by light signals, STOP!  Do not continue until reoriented.  Turn landing lights off while conducting PRETAXI and GROUND RUNUP checklists or if a delay is encountered at the hold short line awaiting takeoff.

            Taxi through the runup areas or on taxiways will be in the center of the surface and on the yellow line, if provided.  Remember, all flight operations are conducted on full runway length for takeoff.
 
    b.  Night takeoff/departure

        1)  Night field lighting

            a) Blue lights mark all taxiways.  There should be blue lights on both sides of the taxiway.

            b) White lights mark the boundaries of the duty runway.

            c) Green lights mark the threshold of the duty runway.

            d) Red lights mark all obstructions on the airfield.

            e) There is a rotating beacon located at fields that are open for night operations.  A military airfield’s white light will be split by a 3 degree void.  This will give the impression that there are two separate, closely timed lights.

        2)  After official sunset only full length runway takeoffs from runway centerline are authorized.  Approaching the hold short line secure the LANDING lights.

        3)  Unless otherwise requested, call for takeoff clearance when number one at the hold short line by switching up button 2 and saying “NORTH GROUND, 6E123, TAKEOFF.”  As you cross the hold short line, turn your STROBE lights on.

        4)  After takeoff, maintain runway heading until 700’ MSL.

        5)  At 700-800’ MSL, make a level turn to the departure heading.

        6)  Remain below 800’ MSL until clear of the traffic pattern.

        7)  Clear of the traffic pattern or when directed by the tower, all departures will switch to Departure Control on button 3.

        8)  After transitioning to a climb, report to Departure Control
            CH 3 “PENSACOLA DEPARTURE, 6E123, PASSING (altitude).”

    c.  Night visual flight techniques (TP, LSC)
 
 
 

    d.  Night course rules (area, HFE)

        1)  Request a night field entry on button 5 when the aircraft is 15 miles from North Field, clear of Class C airspace, and at an airspeed of 170 kts.
            CH 5 “PENSACOLA APPROACH, 6E123, 15 MILES (direction from) NORTH
                  WHITING FOR A NIGHT ENTRY WITH INFORMATION ___.”

        2)  Approach Control will vector the aircraft to a position approximately 5 miles from the approach end of the duty runway at 1700’ MSL.  The position will be offset to the north for runways 5 and 32.  The aircraft will then be instructed to contact Tower.

            CH 2 “NORTH TOWER, 6E123, (distance and direction),
                  INFORMATION ___.”

            Tower’s reply:
                 “6E123, REPORT THE NUMBERS RUNWAY ___, ALTIMETER ___.”

            CH 2 “ROGER, RUNWAY ___.”

        3)  After establishing two-way comms with Tower, descend to 1300’ MSL.

            a) Runway 5, 23, 14 - adjust inbound course to arrive at the break with a minimum of two miles of straightaway at 170 kts.  Ensure that you are on the side of the runway nearest the Tower to keep the runway in sight.

            b) Runway 32 - adjust inbound course to arrive at the approach end of runway with wings level at 170 kts.

        4)  At the approach end of the runway (abeam the numbers), call North Tower for clearance to break and landing intentions:

            CH 2 “NORTH TOWER, 6E123, BREAK RUNWAY ___, FULL STOP (or TOUCH
                  AND GO), FULL LENGTH ROLLOUT (if desired).”

            If instructed to break long (2 miles beyond the upwind numbers):
            CH 2 “6E123, ROGER, BREAK LONG.”
 
        5)  The only difference in the break is that if the aircraft ahead of you is executing a full stop, you do not have interval to break until he is 45 degrees behind your wingtip (vice on your wingtip during day ops).

    e.  Night landing pattern

        1)  Entry to touch-and-go fields will be in accordance with day operations.  Break procedures will also remain the same.  Utilize your RMI to ensure you are on the reciprocal of your landing direction on downwind and attitude gyro to ensure your wings are level.

        2)  Landing lights shall be used for all landings except when deemed necessary for training purposes.

        3)  The intended point of landing at night is on runway centerline, 500-1000 feet up the runway from the green threshold lights.  Avoid fixating on the intended point of landing.  A waveoff should be executed if you cannot touch down in the first 1/3 (2000’) of the runway or if line up extremely right or left of runway centerline.

        4)  In the landing transition, it is imperative that you focus on the end of the runway vice directly over the nose.  “Spotting the deck” may result in a hard landing.  Remember, at night, peripheral cues are greatly reduced requiring a continuous scan.  Depth perception at night is degraded so it will be more difficult to judge height/distance.

        5)  Waveoffs are mandatory in the following situations:

            a) Flare or waveoff lights from the RDO or Wheels Watch

            b) Red light from the Tower (flashing)

            c) Verbal command from IP, RDO, crash crew, or the Tower

            d) No clearance received from the Tower for a touch-and-go or
               full-stop landing

            e) Unable to touch down safely on the first 1/3 of the runway

        6)  Inbound taxi procedures

            a) Landing traffic will turn off only on lighted taxiways or taxiways marked by reflectors.  The tower will expect all aircraft to make a mid-field turnoff unless they request a full length rollout (see Figure 10-2 on page 113 of the TW-5 FWOP).

            b) Landing lights may be left on and used as an aid in landing rollout to taxi off the duty runway at the appropriate taxiway, and taxiing to the line.

            c) If a full length rollout is elected, the following procedures will be utilized:

               (1) Runway 5 - turn right onto the angle taxiway, cross the inactive runway 14/32, turn right onto 9/27, and proceed through the hub for parking on the North/West lines.

               (2) Runway 23 - turn left onto the angle taxiway, turn left onto taxi line between I and J, taxi to the hub.  Check the lettered flipboard at the entrance to the ground runup to determine the row on which to park the aircraft.  Taxi to North/West lines for parking.

               (3) Runway 32 - turn left onto the parallel taxiway, taxi through the hub for parking on the North/West lines.

               (4) Runway 14 - turn right onto the parallel taxiway.  Taxi to closed 9/27, turn left and taxi down 9/27 to the hub.  From the hub, taxi to the North/West lines for parking.  Traffic permitting, taxi between Foxtrot line and tower is permitted.

               When in doubt as to the proper taxi procedures, request PROGRESSIVE taxi instructions from Ground Control.

        7)  As you taxi clear of the duty runway, switch up button 1 and make your call.  Then, as you proceed into your POST-LANDING CHECKLIST, turn OFF your STROBES.

        8)  Engine shutdown will be the same at night as it is for the day.  Once chocks are in place, begin the ENGINE SHUTDOWN CHECKLIST and do not secure the NAV lights until the prop has come to a complete stop.

        9)  On POST-FLIGHT, be sure to set all rheostats to the OFF position.

    f.  Night landings (five minimum)

    g.  Night PPEL

        Night PPEL’s are allowed at homefield during night operations.  Pattern direction is the same as normal landing pattern.  Coordinate PPEL arrival requests through Approach Control.

        The night PPEL is flown with the same checkpoints and airspeeds as the day PPEL.  Aircraft will fly to high key at 2500’ AGL, ¼ WTD abeam the intended point of landing (the first 1/3 of the runway).

        All of the comm calls remain the same as for day operations.  The landing lights will be ON for all PPEL approaches.