Gerber Gouge Fams

Ri 1s
1. Discuss:

a. Orientation on the RMI

The Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) is the primary navigational instrument in the aircraft. It consists of a rotating compass card and two bearing pointers, one for the VOR and one for the TACAN. The aircraft’s magnetic heading is displayed on the compass card beneath the Heading Index. The remaining marks around the compass card are called bench marks. Bench markers divide the compass card into 45 degree segments and are referred to by their relation to the Heading Index.

NOTE - Although the compass card appears to rotate when the aircraft is turning, it is actually the aircraft turning around the card.

The TACAN, or number 2 needle, on the RMI is used to display radial information from a TACAN navigation facility. The aircraft’s TACAN receiver electronically measures the magnetic bearing from the station. The head of the TACAN needle indicates the magnetic course TO the facility, and the tail indicates the magnetic bearing FROM the facility. Remember that a magnetic bearing from a facility is the definition of a radial, so the tail of the TACAN needle will always indicate the radial the aircraft is on.

The VOR needle (single needle) on the RMI is used to display radial information from a VOR facility. The head of the VOR needle indicates the magnetic course TO the VOR station and the tail indicates the radial FROM the VOR station.

There are two methods which can be used to fly to a TACAN or VOR station:

1) HOMING: This method is similar to what you did in BI’s. Simply turn the aircraft to place the head of the needle under the heading index of the RMI and “follow” it to the station. That works great without any winds, however, what are the odds of that? With winds blowing you off course, you’ll actually be flying a curved path as you try to keep the nose pointed at the station. This is normally only used when you are close to the station.

2) TRACKING: Tracking consists of maintaining a straight path or course over the ground. In order to do this, the aircraft must turn slightly into the wind. When using this method, the needle will not normally be under the heading index but slightly to one side. In this case, you’ll have to rely on your CDI to alert you to a drift left or right of the desired course.

What do you do if your RMI compass card fails? BAIL! No, you won’t do that because you are going to keep the following in mind… Although the VOR and TACAN needles will not point toward the VOR or TACAN facility (relative bearing), they may still indicate proper magnetic bearing information. In other words, these needles provide bearing information in relation to the compass card, not the aircraft’s heading.

Weenie numbers:

1) TACAN: 199nm range (FTI); 252 channels (126 X and 126 Y); UHF frequency range 962 - 1213 MHz; it displays information on the CDI, RMI, and DME info on the NACWS; systems test error must indicate 180 (+3.5 deg); morse code id every 35 seconds; signals are not affected by adverse weather; accuracy of ½ mile or 3% or the distance, whichever is greater.
2) VOR: 120nm range (40-45nm at 1000’ AGL); 108.00 - 117.95 frequency range; VOR receiver displays information on RMI; CDI and frequency indicators in each cockpit; systems test error must indicate between 000 deg and 005 deg; the needle parks at the 3 o’clock position when the system is not locked onto a good signal; accuracy +1 degree; not affected by lightning or other types of severe weather; morse code id is continuous.

3) ELECTRICAL: The RMI and flux detector is 28 vdc, the needles slaving accessory are 26 vac and the directional gyro is 115 vac. A RED triangular failure flag will appear on the RMI whenever there is a loss of heading information, when manually slaving, or when power is not available. The signal from the slaving accessory corrects at a rate of 2-5 degrees per minute.

b. Use of the IND-350

Each cockpit station has a CDI to indicate the aircraft’s actual course of flight relative to a course selected with the OBS knob. The CDI in each cockpit is individually set to a desired course heading with the respective OBS selector to or from the selected NAVAID. The NAVAID for both CDIs is determined by the cockpit having avionics command. The CDI needle of the cockpit selecting a center vertical position will deflect left or right of center if the flight course drifts. The VOR-TACAN selector switch and the OBS selector knob on one cockpit CDI do not affect operation of the other CDI.

The amount of drift will be indicated in degrees of course deviation to the right or left of centered alignment, 2 degrees per mark (for a total of 10 degrees left or right of course with a VOR frequency selected vice ILS/Localizer). To correct for a course deviation drift, proper sensing is determined and the aircraft is turned toward the direction of the needle deflection. When course alignment is reestablished, the CDI needle will be at the center vertical position for the cockpit from which correction is being made. To make a long story short, if the needle is off to the left, you must fly to the needle to bring it to the center.

The TO/FROM indicators in the CDI will indicate whether the course selected by the OBS knob will take the aircraft to or from the selected NAVAID. The VOR-TACAN switch above each NACWS CDU selects which navigation system control the respective indicator. A red off flag will appear in the CDI anytime the respective NAVAID selected is not strong enough to lock on and indicates an unreliable signal.

As a general rule, you will use the RMI for orientation, and the CDI as an initial indication of approaching the assigned course (specifically within 10 degrees of course) and fine tuning once established on course. Keep this dictum in mind throughout the Radio Instrument state and you should have few problems with disorientation.

REVERSE SENSING - The CDI could easily be misused.

1) The CDI will be centered whenever the aircraft is on the radial selected by the OBS, or on the reciprocal of that radial. Keeping that in mind, how would you be able to tell whether you are going TO or FROM a NAVAID without the TO-FROM Indicator? You can’t. Until you know that, you will not be able to orient yourself.

2) Look at Figure 3-12 in your RI FTI on page 3-28. The CDI is displaced to the left of center. This would suggest a left turn to return to the desired course. However, examination of the figure listed above would indicate a right turn is necessary. We can see that there appears to be conflicting information. The RMI shows a right turn necessary to return to course - the CDI indicates a left turn. This is known as “reverse sensing.”

3) reverse sensing will occur any time you twist a course with the OBS which lies in the lower half of the RMI. In some cases, this may be done deliberately with the intention of immediately turning to a heading on which the IND-350 will provide proper sensing. In most cases, however, reverse sensing will be the result of setting an improper course (probably 180 degrees off) with the OBS and attempting to remain on course by reference to the CDI only.

4) To avoid reverse sensing, make it a habit to orient yourself on the RMI and use the IND-350 in its proper secondary role. Do not use the IND-350 to determine the direction of turn.

c. Non-radar environment comm procedures

Non-radar vs radar environments:

1) Your first 4 primary RI simulators will be flown in a non-radar environment. Keep in mind while you are flying in a non-radar environment that ATC can not track your position through the use of radar. Therefore, radio calls will be required more often to inform ATC of your position, whether at an intersection, VOR outbound, VOR inbound, IAF or FAF inbound, etc. Study and know the correct format through examples listed below.

2) As most of the world is currently under a radar environment, the majority of your primary RI training will be conducted using radar environment radio communications. On RI-5S, you will be introduced to the Radar Environment and its associated radio calls, and practice them throughout the remainder of your primary RI training.

Non-radar environment communication formats:

1) CLEARANCE DELIVERY

“TALLAHASSEE CLEARANCE DELIVERY, NAVY 6E123, IFR TO PENSACOLA,
CLEARANCE ON REQUEST.”

2) GROUND CLEARANCE

“TALLAHASSEE GROUND, NAVY 6E123, TAXI, IFR TO PENSACOLA, WITH
INFORMATION BRAVO, CLEARANCE ON REQUEST.”

If you have already obtained your IFR clearance from a clearance delivery your ground call would be:

“TALLAHASSEE GROUND, NAVY 6E123, TAXI, WITH INFORMATION BRAVO.”

Obtain ATIS information, if available, and include the alphabetical code word in your initial call for taxi. If ATIS is unavailable:

“TALLAHASSEE GROUND, NAVY 6E123, TAXI, WITH NEGATIVE INFORMATION.”

3) TAKEOFF CALL

“TALLAHASSEE TOWER, NAVY 6E123, TAKEOFF.”

If you already have your release instructions, then the call to tower would be:

“TAKEOFF.”

4) OFF REPORT

“TALLAHASSEE DEPARTURE, NAVY 6E123, OFF TALLAHASSEE REGIONAL, PASSING
1200 FOR 4500.”

5) INITIAL CONTACT WHILE ENROUTE (ETA)

“JACKSONVILLE CENTER (or approach control), NAVY 6E123, ESTIMATING
(intersection/NAVAID) AT 1215, 4500.”

If in a climb or descent:

“JACKSONVILLE CENTER (or approach control), NAVY 6E123, ESTIMATING
(intersection/NAVAID) AT 1215, PASSING 6500 FOR 4500.”

6) COURTESY CALL

“JACKSONVILLE CENTER (or approach control), NAVY 6E123,
(intersection/NAVAID).”

“NAVY 6E123, JACKSONVILLE CENTER, GO AHEAD.”

7) INTERSECTION

Follow the below format for a position report (non-radar):

        P-T-A:
        Position - your current position
        Time -     of arrival at your position
        Altitude - current altitude, (or “passing alt” if climb/descend)

        P-T-P:
        Position - name of your next reporting point
        Time -     estimated time or arrival at the next reporting point
        Position - your next reporting point (if it is your destination,
                   include the word “destination”)

“JACKSONVILLE CENTER (or approach control), NAVY 6E123, PENSI, 40,
6500, BAEYE, 44, ATMORE.”

“NAVY 6E123, JACKSONVILLE CENTER, ROGER, REPORT BAEYE.”

If you are between mandatory reporting points (intersections) and directed to make contact with a different ATC facility, use the Position, Time, Altitude (PTA) format as follows:

“JACKSONVILLE CENTER, NAVY 6E123, ESTIMATING BAEYE AT 44, 6500.”

“NAVY 6E123, JACKSONVILLE CENTER, ROGER, REPORT BAEYE.”

If the “next reporting point” is your destination, your voice report would use the following format:

“JACKSONVILLE CENTER, NAVY 6E123, ATMORE 47, 6500, MONROEVILLE 55,
DESTINATION.”

“NAVY 6E123, JACKSONVILLE CENTER, ROGER, REPORT ATMORE.”

NOTE - Have your ETA’s figured out prior to the intersection.

8) ALTITUDE CHANGE

“JACKSONVILLE CENTER (or approach control), NAVY 6E123, LEAVING 6500
FOR 4500.”

9) CONTACTING APPROACH

Use the EAR-WAR method (Estimate, Altitude, Request - Weather,
Altimeter, Runway):

        “PENSACOLA APPROACH (or center), NAVY 6E123, ESTIMATING PENSACOLA
         REGIONAL AT 1235, 4500, REQUEST Weather, Altimeter, and Duty runway
         for pensacola regional.”

NOTE - ATC is required to provide weather information if the pilot does not report having the current ATIS and the weather is below 1000’ ceiling and 3 sm visibility (IFR).

Once approach reads back the WAR info, make your approach request:

“PENSACOLA APPROACH (or center), NAVY 6E123, REQUEST A (type of)
APPROACH.”

Or, of you have obtained the current ATIS information prior to switching the approach frequency:

        “PENSACOLA APPROACH (or center), NAVY 6E123, ESTIMATE PENSACOLA
         REGIONAL AT 1235, 4500, WITH INFORMATION BRAVO, REQUEST A (type of)
         APPROACH.”

The pilot may request either:

a) A specific approach (i.e., TACAN 1 RWY 23, VOR “B”, ILS 14)

b) a “non-specific” type of approach (i.e., “A VOR approach”). If subsequently “Cleared for a VOR approach” where there is more than one VOR approach for the airport, the pilot may choose the VOR approach of his choice.

9) HOLDING

“PENSACOLA APPROACH (or center), NAVY 6E123, (holding fix name), 1240,
4500.”

NOTE - Request Expected Further Clearance (EFC) time anytime prior to entering holding. If you do not have destination ATIS information, and will be holding at the destination; be sure to request the Weather, Altimeter, and Duty Runway (WAR) prior to holding.

10) VOR OUTBOUND

If no descent is required between crossing the VOR outbound and the procedure turn:

“PENSACOLA APPROACH, NAVY 6E123, VOR OUTBOUND.”

NOTE - This report is given only if requested by ATC.

If a descent is required after passing the VOR outbound:

“PENSACOLA APPROACH, NAVY 6E123, VOR OUTBOUND, LEAVING (alt).”

11) PROCEDURE TURN INBOUND

NOTE - This report is given only if requested by ATC.

“PENSACOLA APPROACH, NAVY 6E123, PROCEDURE TURN INBOUND.”

If you have been handed over to Tower frequency:

“REGIONAL TOWER, NAVY 6E123, PROCEDURE TURN INBOUND, GEAR DOWN AND
LOCKED.”

12) IAF INBOUND

NOTE - This report is given only if requested by ATC.

If no descent is required at the IAF inbound:

“PENSACOLA APPROACH, NAVY 6E123, INITIAL APPROACH FIX INBOUND.”

If a descent is required at the IAF inbound:

“PENSACOLA APPROACH, NAVY 6E123, INITIAL APPROACH FIX INBOUND, LEAVING
(alt).”

NOTE - The name of the IAF may be used, if there is a name (i.e., “BUBBA
INBOUND.”

13) FAF INBOUND

“REGIONAL TOWER, NAVY 6E123, FINAL APPROACH FIX INBOUND, GEAR DOWN AND
LOCKED.”

NOTE - The name of the FAF may be used, if there is a name (i.e., BRENT
INBOUND.”

14) MISSED APPROACH

“REGIONAL TOWER, NAVY 6E123, MISSED APPROACH, (reason for missed
approach).”

When Tower turns you over to the APPROACH controller, inform ATC of the missed approach with your intentions:

            a) Request the same approach
            b) Request a different approach with lower mins
            c) Request clearance to your alternate
       15) ADDITIONAL REPORTS

        See Flight Information Handbook (FIH), General Planning (GP), and Airmen’s Information Manual (AIM).

2. Demonstrate:

a. Non-radar environment comm procedures

1) See section 1.c. above.

3. Introduce:

a. Radio equipment checkout

1) Strap in as usual. After the aircraft is started and the instructor (or you) calls for taxi, set your clock and altimeter, and transponder (CAT) in accordance with the taxi information you received in your taxi instructions. Additionally, be sure your UHF is set to the same frequency as your instructor’s.

NOTE - Most military airfields require “start-up) clearance from GROUND prior to engine start. Check with Base Ops to determine if this is required.

2) Complete the first 11 items on the instrument checklist.

a) Hood installed and operating properly.

b) Rudder pedals and seat adjusted.

c) Airspeed indicator reading zero.

d) Altimeter set (alignment knob set to white tick)

e) RMI aligned with magnetic compass.

f) Clock set and running.

g) Attitude gyro erect and adjusted.

h) Vertical-speed indicator reading zero.

j) Oxygen equipment checked and blinker operating.

k) Battery switch ON.

l) Inverter switch to #1 inverter.

3) As your instructor pulls out of the chocks complete the rest of
your checklist:

m) Attitude gyro remains erect in turns.

n) RMI tracking properly in turns.

o) Turn needle indicating turn in proper direction.

p) Balance ball moving freely; liquid damping fluid full.

q) Radios and navaids turned on and set.

                (1) To accomplish a test using the internal self test
                    circuitry:

                    While depressing the SYS TEST button, place the appropriate audio switch forward on the audio panel, twist the OBS to the same course indicated by the head of the VOR Needle. Select VOR on the VOR/TACAN switch. The CDI should center and the TO-FROM indicator should indicate TO. Complete the same test for the TACAN.

(2) To perform an actual “in use” test of your NAVAIDS:

VOR Test Facility (VOT): VOR azimuth can be tested (on selected civil and joint use airfields) or certified checkpoint on the airport surface (military and civil airfields). The VOT transmits a test signal identified by a continuous series of dots or a continuous 1020 Hz tone. With the proper VOT frequency tuned (and identified), the VOR needle points 180. Selecting a course of 180, the IND-350 should enter the CDI with a TO indication. VOT frequencies are listed in the IFR Enroute Supplement opposite Radio Aids to Navigation for selected airports.

Certified Airborne Checkpoints: have been established on airways and in the vicinity of VOR stations to check the accuracy of VOR azimuth in flight. VOR airborne checkpoints are published in FLIP Area Planning (AP1) under country listing.

Ground Checkpoints: Military bases normally provide specific ground points to check TACAN accuracy within +4 degrees of the designated radial and DME within ½ mile or 3% of the distance to the station, whichever is greater.

NOTE - With an error in excess of +4 deg during a ground check or +6 deg during an airborne check, IFR flight should not be attempted.

4) Prior to the Ground Runup, report:

        “Instrument checklist complete, oxygen 100%, blinker operating
         normally, altimeter error less (or more) than 75 feet. Radios
         and NAVAIDS tuned and set.”

b. ATC clearance

Air Traffic Control (ATC) has been delegated the responsibility to maintain air traffic separation of all aircraft flying on an IFR clearance. Your aircraft will be under the control of ATC from takeoff until landing (Deparature Control (DPC) during the climb, Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) during the enroute phase, and Approach Control (APC) during tthe descent into the terminal area).

DPC/APCs are located at airports and ARTCCs are located strategically around the country. The term ATC means one or all three collectively. As you will note in the text, the ATC clearance which you first receive will be the basic enroute clearance from the ARTCC.

ARTCCs are capable of direct communications with IFR air traffic on certain frequencies. Maximum communication coverage is possible through the use of remote center/air ground sits comprised of VHF and UHF transmitters and receivers. These sites are located throughout the US and are indicated on the IFR Enroute charts. Although the sites may be several hundred miles away from the ARTCC, they are connected to the centers by land lines and/or microwave links. As IFR operations are expedited through the use of direct communications, pilots are requested to use these frequencies strictly for communications pertinent to the control of IFR aircraft. DPC, through the TOWER, will provide a specific departure clearance when you are ready for takeoff and APC will issue your approach clearance upon your arrival at your destination.

When a pilot files a flight plan with Base Ops, the processing of the clearance begins. Flight plans should be filed at least 30 minutes prior to your estimated time of takeoff. Base Ops personnel will relay the request to ATC (normally via a Flight Service Station (FSS) where it is placed in a computer with other clearance requests. The computer will analyze flight times, routes, altitudes, etc., and grant a specific clearance to each aircraft. ATC will relay this clearance to GROUND CONTROL/CLEARANCE DELIVERY (via the TOWER) at the departure airport. GROUND CONTROL/CLEARANCE DELIVERY will in turn relay the clearance to the pilot. All controlling agencies involved with the flight will receive copies of the clearance; DPC, all ARTCC centers concerned with your flight, and APC at your final destination.

During the time it takes for the clearance to be processed, the pilot normally completes his PREFLIGHT CHECKLIST of the aircraft. When requesting taxi, the pilot should state the fact that he is on an IFR flight plan and then state the destination. IF ATIS is available, the code letter for the ATIS broadcast should also be included in the initial call.

GROUND VOICE PROCEDURES:

        Make your request for taxi:
        “NORTH GROUND, NAVY 6E123, TAXI, IFR, TALLAHASSEE, WITH INFORMATION
         BRAVO.”

“NAVY 6E123, NORTH GROUND, TAXI RUNWAY 32, TIME 45, CLEARANCE ON
REQUEST.” This means that they are awaiting an answer from ATC.

        When GROUND receives the clearance from ATC they will relay it:
        “NAVY 6E123, NORTH GROUND, WE HAVE YOUR CLEARANCE, ADVISE WHEN READY
         TO COPY.”

“NORTH GROUND, NAVY 6E123, READY TO COPY.”

NOTE - Normally ATC clearances will be relayed to pilots of departing aircraft by the GROUND CONTROL position. At many busy airports, however, a CLEARANCE DELIVERY position has been established and a separate radio frequency has been designated for this purpose. No visual surveillance or control over the movement of aircraft is exercised by CLEARANCE DELIVERY. CLEARANCE DELIVERY’s only function is read clearances to the pilot.

        CLEARANCE DELIVER (or GROUND) will read your clearance:
        “ATC CLEARS NAVY 6E123 TO MOBILE/BATES AIRPORT, VIA RADAR VECTORS
         MERIDIAN, V543 EATON, V114 GULFPORT, V20 SEMMES, CLIMB AND MAINTAIN
         ONE SIX THOUSAND, CONTACT MERIDIAN DEPARTURE ON 276.4, SQUAWK 1100.”

“NORTH GROUND (or CLEARANCE DELIVERY), NAVY 6E123, ROGER.”

Elements of an IFR Clearance:

ATC IFR clearances will contain all or part of the following items. These items will normally correspond with those filed in the DD-175; however, it is ATC’s prerogative to change any altitude, route, or departure time to maintain separation. Use the “AC DRAFT” memory aid as follows (don’t confuse this memory aid with the DRAFT aid used in a Missed Approach report):

1) Aircraft identification: “NAVY 6E123

2) Clearance limit (point to which cleared): MOBILE/BATES

3) Departure procedure (Radar or SID): RADAR VECTORS

4) Route of flight: V523 LBY V114 …

5) Altitude data: 16000 ft MSL

6) Frequency (departure): 276.4

7) Transponder (squawk) information: SQUAWK 1100”

If applicable:
8) Holding information

9) Special information

Make sure you have your DD-175 ready to note possible changes to your requested flight plan. Clearance must be read back verbatim only if directed to “read back” by the controller.

ABBREVIATED CLEARANCES:

ATC may issue abbreviated IFR clearances to departing aircraft. These clearances do not include all of the information of a detailed clearance. An abbreviated clearance cannot be issued or accepted if the route of flight originally filed with ATC has been changed. If ATC has changed any portion of the clearance, they will issue the changes to the pilot. When the term “flight planned route” or “as filed” is used, it does not include the altitude. This will always be issued separately (altitude).

        “ATC CLEARS NAVY 6E123 TO THE MOBILE/BATES AIRPORT VIA RADAR VECTORS
         MERIDIAN, FLIGHT PLANNED ROUTE (or AS FILED), CLIMB TO AND MAINTAIN
         ONE SIX THOUSAND.”

1) Aircraft identification: “NAVY 6E123

2) Clearance limit (point to which cleared): MOBILE/BATES

3) Departure procedure (Radar or SID): RADAR VECTORS
MERIDIAN

4) Route of flight: AS FILED

5) Altitude data: 16000

6) Frequency (departure): 276.4
7) Transponder (squawk) information: SQUAWK 1100”

If applicable:
8) Holding information

9) Special information

Initial clearance granted to departing aircraft will include, whenever practicable, the destination airport as the clearance limit. ATC may, however, utilize short-range clearance procedures in lieu of clearance to the destination airport. When any part of the route beyond the short-range clearance limit differs from that requested in the original flight plan, the clearance will include the proposed routing beyond the clearance limit, preceded by the words “EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE” (EFC).

When a flight has been cleared to a fix short of its destination airport, additional clearance to proceed beyond or instructions to hold at the fix will be issued at least 5 minutes before the aircraft is estimated to reach the fix. If additional clearance has not been received and you still have two-way communications with CENTER, hold in accordance with the depicted patter. If no pattern is depicted, enter a standard holding pattern on the course from which the aircraft approached the fix.

When an air traffic clearance has been obtained under IFR, the pilot in command of the aircraft shall NOT deviate from the provisions thereof unless an amended clearance is obtained. The most important and guiding principle to remember is the last ATC clearance received has precedence over related portions of any previous ATC clearance.

It is possible to change your flight plan while enroute; however, you must request and receive an amended clearance prior to deviating form your original clearance. Should a pilot, for any reason, be incapable of complying with any provision of an amended ATC clearance or restriction, the pilot is expected to immediately advise ATC. A brief reason, such as “unable due to fuel,” may be included if considered necessary.

RELEASE INSTRUCTIONS:

After you have your basic IFR clearance, you will be given release or departure instructions immediately prior to takeoff. DEPARTURE CONTROL frequencies, transponder codes, and climb-out instructions may be contained in the release. The example below may vary depending on facility and controller:

“NORTH TOWER, NAVY 6E123, TAKEOFF.”

        “NAVY 6E123, NORTH TOWER, AFTER TAKEOFF TURN RIGHT HEADING 180, CLIMB
         TO ONE SIX THOUSAND FEET, SQUAWK 1100, CONTACT MERIDIAN DEPARTURE ON
         276.4 WHEN SAFELY AIRBORNE.”

“NORTH TOWER, NAVY 6E123, WILCO.”

c. Tracking (with and without IND-350)

Tracking is a procedure used to determine the proper heading to correct for drift to maintain a desired track over the ground. When flying RIs, the aircraft must maintain a straight path over the ground. Under a no-wind condition, this may be accomplished simply by maintaining aircraft heading. If a crosswind exists, the aircraft must crab into the wind to maintain a straight path over the ground, thus preventing drift. The tracking procedure determines the corrected aircraft heading (crab into the wind) that will keep the aircraft on the desired flight path over the ground.

Tracking with the CDI makes your job a lot easier because you’ll be able to note any course deviations quickly and be able to correct by simply steering into the needle. If it’s off to the right, come a little right. However, tracking without the CDI means that you’ll have to rely on your RMI to note course deviations. Just remember to think about the radial you are on, then the radial you want to get to…if where you want to be is to the left of the current “needle tail” position, steer to the left to correct and then leave in a slight crab to counter the wind that blew you to the right.

If there is ever a discrepancy between RMI and CDI, the RMI is to
be relied upon for course information.

EXAMPLE - Consider a situation in which the aircraft is flying a course of 083 to the NAVAID with a wind from the NORTH (360). The basic technique remains unchanged for different course/wind combinations; only the numbers change.

Procedures for VOR/TACAN Tracking:

1) CDI. Set the proper course in the CDI (IND-350)

2) TOGGLE. Check the VOR/TACAN switch in the proper position.

3) Establish the aircraft on the proper radial from the station, flying either inbound or outbound. Visualize the aircraft as being on the tail of the RMI needle, with the station at the center.

4) TURN. Turn to, and fly a heading equal to the course selected (083 in this case). Ensure desired course is in the upper half of the RMI.

5) Hold heading carefully. Precise heading control is very important.

6) Watch for drift off course by use of the CDI and RMI. The existence of a crosswind component will be indicated by CDI and RMI needle displacement. Since there is a crosswind in this example coming from the NORTH, your aircraft has been blown to a position SOUTH of the 263 radial to the 253 radial.

7) TAIL-RADIAL-WIND. To determine the direction from which the wind is blowing, use the RMI. Imaging the aircraft as being on the tail of the needle in use (TACAN or VOR). Visualize a line from the tail of the needle (present position) through the desired radial. Imagine sliding this line to the center of the RMI…this will indicate the direction the wind is FROM (to the nearest cardinal heading).

8) Turn 10 to 30 degrees toward the desired radial. This will be a turn INTO THE WIND. The exact number of degrees to alter heading will depend on the rate and magnitude of drift and also on your distance from the station.

9) As you alter your course toward to desired radial (in this case 263) by about 20 degrees, the head of the needle is in a position to fall and the tail will rise to 263.

10) Hold this heading carefully. As the head of the needle falls to the desired course (tail rises to desired course if proceeding outbound) and the CDI centers, turn back toward the desired course leaving in a drift correction of approximately 5 degrees.

11) If the drift correction is sufficient, the aircraft will remain on course. If the drift correction is not sufficient, the wind will blow the aircraft off course in the same direction. Repeat the procedure, leaving in a larger correction.

12) If the drift correction is too great for the wind, the aircraft will fly itself off course and the needles will drift off in the opposite direction. Turn the aircraft back to parallel the desired course and let the wind blow you back on the proper radial. When the needle returns to course, establish a smaller drift correction.

13) Once the proper drift correction has been determined, maintaining the proper heading will keep the aircraft on course. Continue scanning the RMI and CDI for subsequent changes, making corrections as necessary.

IMPORTANT - Remember that radials converge at the station so needle movement will occur more rapidly close to the station. Do not chase the needle. Limit heading changes to 10 degrees of drift corrected heading when in close to avoid overshooting.

Common errors:

1) Not establishing the aircraft on the proper radial before starting tracking procedures.

2) Poor heading control.

3) Attempting to continue tracking procedures when the aircraft gets off course due to poor heading control. If this happens to you, get the aircraft on the proper radial and start all over again.

4) Forgetting to leave in a drift correction.

5) Using excessive heading corrections in close to the station.

6) Confusing the difference between intercepting and tracking a course. Use an intercept to get on the desired course. Tracking is a procedure used to determine a heading to correct for drift, enabling the aircraft to remain on the desired course. Tracking cannot be commenced until the aircraft is established on course.

d. Radial intercepts (with and without IND-350)

A radial intercept is a procedure used to position the aircraft on a different radial. Radial intercepts are performed to allow you to practice orienting yourself around a navigational facility and are generally encountered in a teardrop or procedure turn approach. You may be outbound or inbound on your present radial and be required to intercept a new radial either inbound or outbound. Regardless of the situation, the same procedures are used for all radial intercepts of 30 degrees or less.

Procedures:

1) Determine the new course and set it in the IND-350. Your new course will be either:

a) the same as the new radial if intercepting outbound.

b) the reciprocal if intercepting the new radial inbound.

2) Determine the present position of the aircraft in terms of the radial you are on. Look at the tail of the appropriate needle.

3) Determine the location of the new radial relative to the tail of the needle (left or right).

4) Start a turn toward the new radial.

5) Stop the turn with the new course under the first 45 degree benchmark in the top half of the RMI. Note the heading. Always fly headings, not benchmarks.

NOTE - To ensure that you have the proper intercept established, check that the head of the needle is in a position to fall, or the tail of the needle in a position to rise to the new course.

NOTE - To ensure proper sensing of the CDI, check that the course selected in the IND-350 is in the UPPER HALF of the RMI.

6) Maintain this intercept heading until the needle approaches the desired course.

7) Turn to intercept the course. Judge the rate of needle movement and plan your turn so as to roll out on your new course.

8) Track on desired course.

Common errors:

1) Turning toward the new COURSE vice RADIAL.

2) Not doing steps 1-3 prior to beginning the turn.

3) Flying the benchmark instead of the heading.

e. Station passage

Station passage is defined as the moment the aircraft passes directly over or abeam the radio facility.

1) VOR

The time of station passage is noted when the initial FROM indication appears in the TO-FROM indicator of the IND-350. It is important that this method of determining station passage be used each time. Additionally, you may also see the VOR needle rotate 180 degrees and see the CDI oscillate from side to side.

NOTE - The head of the VOR needle may fall below the 90 degree benchmark at the same time.

NOTE - To receive a FROM indication after station passage, the IND-350 must have been set to a course that resulted in a TO indication prior to station passage.

2) TACAN

Due to the increased cone of confusion associated with TACAN stations, the time of station passage is noted when minimum DME is reached and begins to increase.

NOTE - Your instrument indications will fluctuate when close to the station, this does not necessarily mean your aircraft is off course. Do not chase either the VOR or TACAN needle when close to the station. Limit your heading or corrections to within 10 degrees of drift corrected heading when in close to avoid overshooting.

Although DME is your primary indication, you can also look for the following as signs of station passage:

            a) TACAN needle rotates 180 degrees
            b) CDI oscillates from side to side
            c) TO/FROM indicator switches from TO to FROM

NOTE - The TACAN’s cone of confusion is much larger that the VOR’s. In fact, at 40,000 feet, the TACAN cone is 15 nm in diameter! Expect signal reception to be very weak in this area and for DME to be unaffected. The VOR/TACAN needles of the RMI will hunt (rotate).

f. Over-the-station intercepts (OSI)

An over-the-station intercept is a procedure used to intercept and fly outbound on a specific radial after station passage. This procedure applies to over-the-station intercepts following station passage. In Primary RI, the over-the-station intercept will be practiced as a distinct maneuver. In the “real world,” the over-the-station intercept is normally performed as part of an overall maneuver such as an instrument approach or missed approach, or while flying the airways.

Procedures:

Following station passage, perform the 6 T’s as appropriate:

1) TIME - note the time of station passage and write it down.

a) VOR - primary indication is when the TO/FROM indicator switches
from TO to FROM.

b) TACAN - primary indication is when minimum DME is reached and
subsequently begins to increase.

2) TURN

a) Turn in the shortest direction toward the outbound course.

b) Roll out on a heading the same as the outbound course (parallel
the new course).

3) TIME - as required.

4) TRANSITION - as required.

5) TWIST - set the course in the IND-350.

a) Wait for the VOR or TACAN needle to settle down.

b) Note the number of degrees between the intended course and the
tail of the needle.

            c) Turn that many degrees away from the tail of the needle, to a
               maximum of 45 degrees beyond the outbound course. Maintain
               this heading while the tail of the needle rises to the outbound
               course.

d) As the tail of the needle approaches the outbound course, turn
to the outbound course and track outbound.

6) TALK - Give a voice report if required.

Common errors:

        1) Not giving the instruments enough time to settle down before
            establishing angle of intercept.
        2) Drifting off or changing the intercept heading while the tail of
            the needle rises to the outbound course. Hold the intercept
            heading until you can make one continuous turn rolling out on
            course.
    g. Double-the-angle Intercepts

The double-the-angle intercept is a maneuver which provides a shallow and easily controlled rate of intercept to a desires course. The spacing between radials decreases the closer you get to the station. A large intercept angle, when close, could very easily result in overshooting the desired course. A shallow intercept (double-the-angle) would prevent this.

Procedure:

1) During the last half of your turn toward a desired course, note the number of degrees between the head of the needle and the desired course inbound.

2) Utilizing the 1/3 rule, plan your rollout so as to stop on a heading double the number of degrees from the desired course to the head of the needle. In other words, place the head of the needle half way between the aircraft heading and the desired course.

3) The head of the needle is now in a position to fall to the desired course. Refer to the FTI page 3-32 for a diagram.

4) As the head of the needle falls, maintain heading until approaching course. Monitor RMI and CDI and initiate a turn to course, utilizing appropriate lead. Once established on course, apply drift correction and resume tracking procedures until station passage. Since the aircraft is close to the station, only small changes in heading will be necessary to maintain course. Therefore, turns should be performed at an AOB no greater than the number of degrees OFF heading.

NOTE - In VOR holding, it is critical that the aircraft be established on the holding radial prior to crossing the VOR. If you roll out with a large double-the-angle intercept (i.e., 10 degrees or more), it is recommended that you hold your initial double-the-angle intercept heading until the head of the VOR needle drops toward the holding radial. Judge the rate of needle movement to roll out on the holding radial with the needle centered.

4. Practice:

a. Direct to a VOR/TACAN

Procedures:

1) TUNE and identify the station

a) AVIONICS CONTROL. Ensure that you have avionics control (inform the IP if you intend to TAKE avionics command). Set the desired frequency or channel. If using TACAN, ensure you are tuned to the “X” band of the desired channel.

b) IDENTIFY. Place the appropriate audio switch forward on the audio panel until the station is positively identified, then turn the switch off.

NOTE - A TACAN station identification occurs only 35 seconds. If you do not know the MORSE identification, ask you instructor.

c) TOGGLE. Ensure the appropriate NAVAID is selected using the toggle switch above the CDI/NACWS.
2) TURN. Turn to place the single needle (VOR) or double needle (TACAN) under the heading index of the RMI.

3) TWIST. Twist the omni bearing selector (OBS) knob in the CDI until the CDI centers with a white flag under “TO” in the TO/FROM indicator. The course under the index in the CDI with the CDI centered is the current course direct to the station.

4) TALK. Report course to your instructor from the CDI. The maneuver is complete. ICS “SIR, THE COURSE IS 075 DEGREES.”